UNIT 5: Hiroshima and Nagasaki

THE EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR BOMBS

Although the destruction of entire cities by conventional bombing had become common as World War II progressed, the atomic bombs dropped at Hiroshima and Nagasaki introduced several new elements, many of which were not fully understood until after the bombs were used. These included an intense burst of ionizing (high energy) radiation; an exploding fireball instantly inflicting burns and starting fires; an enormously powerful shock wave; a mushroom cloud propelling fission products and irradiated material into the upper atmosphere, from where it returned as “radioactive fallout”; short-term effects of radiation sickness, including death within a few days among the heavily exposed; and long-term effects of radiation exposure, including cancer and congenital disabilities.

Thus the destructive effects of the atomic bombs in Japan were not simply those of an equivalent tonnage of conventional bombs. Some, like leukemia, became apparent only years after the events.

HIROSHIMA, JAPAN: A MILITARY CITY

On the morning of August 6, 1945, Hiroshima was the seventh largest city in Japan, with a population of some 350,000. Located on the southwestern shore of the main island of Honshu, where the delta of the Ota River enters the Seto Inland Sea, the city took its name from the Hiro-shima-Jo (“Broad-island-castle”), a fortress established by a local lord in 1594.

Hiroshima was a prefectural capital and a key economic center for western Japan. In April 1945, the Second General Headquarters, which would plan and lead the attack against the expected American invasion, was also established in Hiroshima. Supplies for Imperial forces in China, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific had passed through the city’s Ujina port throughout World War II.

HIROSHIMA: A MILITARIZED CITY

On the morning of August 6, 1945, Hiroshima was the seventh largest city in Japan, with a population of 350,000 and an important industrial center and army base of 40,000. Located on the southwestern end of the main island of Honshu, where the delta of the Ota River enters the Seto Inland Sea, the city took its name from the Hiro-shima, Jo (“Broad-island-castle”), a fortress established by a local lord in 1594.

In April 1945, the Second General Headquarters, which was to plan and lead the defense against the expected American invasion, was established in Hiroshima. Supplies for Imperial forces in China, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific had passed through the city’s Ujina port throughout World War II. 

HIROSHIMA AT WAR

Hiroshima had escaped the incendiary bombing campaign that was destroying many smaller towns. Puzzled, some city residents speculated that the U.S. Army Air Forces had spared the city because of its beautiful location on the Inland Sea. Others believed that the town was protected because so many Japanese American families had emigrated to America from the region. One wild rumor even suggested that Hiroshima was the birthplace of President Truman’s mother.

Convinced that the B-29s passing over the city each night would eventually strike Hiroshima, city officials prepared for an attack. Concerned that flooding would result from the destruction of a dam above the town, they issued bamboo floats to the leaders of neighborhood associations and ordered that similar floats be constructed for everyone in the city. Students were released from class and put to work clearing firebreaks in the center of the town. Sand and water buckets were kept filled. When the attack came, the people of Hiroshima were determined to be prepared.

HIROSHIMA AT WAR

Hiroshima had escaped the firebombing campaign that was destroying many smaller cities. Puzzled, some city residents speculated that the town had been spared because of its beautiful location on the Inland Sea. Others believed that it was being protected because so many Japanese American families had emigrated to America from the region. One wild rumor even suggested that Hiroshima was the birthplace of President Truman’s mother.

Convinced that the B-29s passing over the city each night would eventually strike Hiroshima, city officials prepared for an attack. Concerned that flooding would result from the destruction of a dam above the city, they issued bamboo floats to the leaders of neighborhood associations and ordered that similar floats be constructed for everyone in the town. Students were released from class and put to work clearing firebreaks in the city’s center. Sand and water buckets were kept filled. The people of Hiroshima were determined to be prepared when the attack came.

HIROSHIMA, 8:15 a.m., AUGUST 6, 1945

The morning of Monday, August 6, was sunny and hot in Hiroshima. By 7:00 a.m., people were pouring into the city center to begin the work day. In addition to the usual officers and factory workers, merchants, and shopkeepers, some 8,300 junior and senior high school students were laboring to demolish 2,500 buildings evacuated to create firebreaks in six city districts.

The first air raid warning of the day sounded at 7:09 as “Straight Flush,” a B-29 weather aircraft piloted by Capt. Claude Eatherly appeared over the city. “Enola Gay,” accompanied by two other B-29s, “The Great Artiste” and “Number 91,” approached Hiroshima from the northeast one hour later. At precisely 8:15:17, the Little Boy bomb was released from the Enola Gay. Forty-three seconds later, it detonated 580 m (1,870 ft) over the Shima Hospital.

HIROSHIMA, 8:15 a.m., AUGUST 6, 1945

The morning of Monday, August 6, was sunny and hot in Hiroshima. By 7:00 a.m., people were pouring into the city center to begin the workday. Besides the usual officers and factory workers, merchants, soldiers, and shopkeepers, some 8,000 junior and senior high school students were working to demolish buildings evacuated to create firebreaks in the city’s center.

The first air raid warning of the day sounded at 7:09 as Straight Flush, a B-29 weather aircraft piloted by Capt. Claude Eatherly appeared over the city. Enola Gay, accompanied by two other B-29s, The Great Artiste and Number 91, approached Hiroshima from the northeast one hour later. At precisely 8:15:17, the “Little Boy” bomb was released from the Enola Gay. Forty-three seconds later, it detonated 580 meters (1,870 feet) above the ground.

NAGASAKI, JAPAN: WINDOW ON THE WEST

Founded in the 12th century, Nagasaki is located on the southwestern island of Kyushu, where the Nakashima and Urakami rivers enter the East China Sea. On August 15, 1549, the Jesuit father Francis Xavier landed in Kyushu and founded the first Christian missions in Japan. Intrigued by the new religion and Western firearms, Japanese leaders first tolerated the Spanish and Portuguese presence at Nagasaki. After 1587, however, they banned Christianity and severely persecuted its adherents.

For two-and-a-half centuries, from about 1600 to 1850, all foreign contacts with Japan were made through Nagasaki, where a small group of Dutch East India Company traders was tolerated on the tiny island of Dejima in the harbor. Nagasaki retained its importance as a center of Western economic and cultural influence following the opening of Japan in 1854. Christians re-emerged who had remained secretly faithful during the centuries of persecution. Nagasaki was once more the center of the Catholic Church in Japan.

NAGASAKI: WINDOW ON THE WEST

Founded in the 12th century, Nagasaki is located on the southwestern island of Kyushu, where the Nakashima and Urakami rivers enter the East China Sea. In 1549 the Jesuit father Francis Xavier landed in Kyushu and founded the first Christian missions in Japan. Intrigued by the new religion and Western firearms, Japanese leaders first tolerated the Spanish and Portuguese presence at Nagasaki. After 1587, however, they banned Christianity and severely persecuted its adherents.

From about 1640 to 1850, all foreign contacts with Japan were made through Nagasaki, where a small group of Dutch East India Company traders was allowed to operate on the tiny island of Dejima in the harbor. Nagasaki retained its importance as a center of Western economic and cultural influence following the opening of Japan to trade in 1859. Christians had remained secretly faithful during the centuries of persecution re-emerged.

NAGASAKI AT WAR

In August 1945, Nagasaki had a population of about 270,000 people and was a major industrial center. One of the most important shipyards in the nation was located in the harbor. The great naval base of Sasebo was nearby. The giant battleship Musashi was based here during the closing months of WWII. In addition, the city was home to various factories critical to the war effort, including the Mitsubishi Steel Works.

NAGASAKI AT WAR

In August 1945, Nagasaki had a population of 240,000 people and was a major industrial center. One of the most important shipyards in the nation was located in the harbor. The great naval base of Sasebo was nearby, and the giant battleship Musashi was based here during much of 1944. The city was also home to various factories critical to the war effort, including the Mitsubishi Steel Works. The torpedoes used in the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 were manufactured in Nagasaki.

NAGASAKI, 11:02 A.M., AUGUST 9, 1945

The morning of Thursday, August 9, was mild and humid in Nagasaki. The skies were clear at 8:30 a.m. when a B-29 weather aircraft flew over the city. By mid-morning, however, a weather front from the East China Sea had spread a thick layer of cloud cover over Nagasaki.

Having been forced to abandon their primary target, Kokura, because of haze and smoke, the B-29s Bockscar and The Great Artiste ran low on fuel as they approached Nagasaki. The bombardier of Bockscar made a radar approach but released the “Fat Man” bomb through a momentary break in the clouds at 11:02 a.m. The weapon exploded 503 m (1,540 ft) above the Urakami River Valley—2.5 km (1.5 mi) from the intended target in the city’s center.

NAGASAKI, 11:02 A.M., AUGUST 9, 1945

The morning of Thursday, August 9, was mild and humid in Nagasaki. The skies were clear at 8:30 a.m. when a B-29 weather aircraft flew over the city. By mid-morning, however, a weather front moving in from the East China Sea had spread a thick cloud layer over Nagasaki.

Having been forced to abandon their primary target, Kokura, because of haze and smoke, the B-29s Bockscar and The Great Artiste ran low on fuel as they approached Nagasaki. The bombardier of Bockscar made a radar approach and released the “Fat Man” bomb at 11:02 a.m. The weapon exploded 503 meters (1,540 feet) above the Urakami River valley, 2.6 km (1.6 mi) from the intended target in the city’s center.

NAGASAKI, AUGUST 10, 1945

Mr. Yosuke Yamabata, a resident of Nagasaki, set out with his camera early on the morning of August 10, 1945. He spent the day walking through the shattered Urakami Valley, capturing scenes of the incredible destruction –and the faces of those who, for the moment, at least, had survived. Mr. Yamabata died only a few years after the war, probably from his exposure to residual radiation.

NAGASAKI, AUGUST 10, 1945

Mr. Yosuke Yamabata set out with his camera early on August 10, 1945. He spent the day walking through the shattered Urakami Valley, capturing scenes of the incredible destruction –and the faces of those who had survived.

SCHOOLBOY’S JACKET

Tetsuo Kitabayashi was a first-year student at the Second Hiroshima Prefectural Middle School. On the morning of August 6, 1945, he was conscripted with other students to work on a civil defense project near the Shin Ohashi Bridge. He returned home that afternoon, badly burned, and was taken to the Ujina aid station. He fell unconscious and died shortly after 4:00 p.m. on August 7.

“THE INCREDIBLE AVALANCHE OF LIGHT”

“There was a blinding white flash of light, and the next moment –Bang! Crack! Like a massive blow, a huge impact smote down upon our bodies, heads, and hospital.”

Dr. Tatsuichiro Akizuki, Franciscan Tuberculosis Hospital, Nagasaki.

“Flash! The incredible avalanche of light seemed to last for several seconds…momentarily, the bright August sun was completely absorbed and negated by it.”

Ms. Kimie Akabae, Nagasaki

“THE INCREDIBLE AVALANCHE OF LIGHT”

“Flash! The incredible avalanche of light seemed to last for several seconds…momentarily, the bright August sun was completely absorbed and negated by it.”

Ms. Kimie Akabae, Nagasaki

Few survivors close to the center of the Hiroshima or Nagasaki explosions would remember hearing the sound of the blast. None of them would ever forget the Pika –the flash of incredibly brilliant light and heat as a nuclear explosion heated the sky to luminescence. The burst of light was quickly followed by a tremendous air pressure wave that bent steel bridges, toppled buildings, and reduced wooden houses to kindling.

“Then a tremendous flash of light cut across the sky… It seemed like a sheet of sun.”

Rev. Kiyoshi Tainimoto, from Hiroshima by John Hersey (1946)

“Suddenly, there was a brilliant flash, like a photographer’s magnesium flash… Then came the blast with a loud bang, and I felt like I had been kicked in the guts… The world was black>.”

F.J. Johnston, Australian prisoner-of-war in Nagasaki, 1945

THE FIRST UNSPEAKABLE SECOND

The two bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were quite different, but the sequence of events after the detonation of each weapon was about the same.

0.0 second: The temperature at the epicenter (burst point) reaches several degrees within one-millionth of a second following detonation. All of the material composing the bomb become ionized gas and gamma rays –electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength (0.1 to 10 nanometers).

0.1 SECOND: A fireball with a diameter of 15 meters (15 ft) and a temperature of some 30,000 C (540,000 F) has formed. Radiation in the form of alpha and beta particles, gamma rays, and neutrons (3% of the total energy of the bomb) streams out in every direction. Alpha and beta particles do not reach the ground. Neutrons and gamma rays reach the bottom almost instantly. They are responsible for the initial radiation damage to living organisms and the irradiation of soil and structures in the blast area.

0.15 second: The fireball is expanding, but a shock wave expands even more rapidly, heating the air until it becomes luminous. As the air begins to cool, the hot inner core of the fireball becomes visible for the first time. It will remain visible for some ten seconds.

0.2 second: The temperature at the core of the expanding fireball is now about 7,700 C (13,900 F). Thermal energy released by the explosion (35% of the total energy) ranges from near ultraviolet to infrared wavelengths. The vast amounts of infrared energy generated during the 0.2-0.3 seconds following the explosion cause most of the initial thermal burns to human beings.

1 second: The fireball reaches its maximum 200-300 m diameter. The blast (50% of the total energy) is now complete. The overpressure at the hypocenter (the spot directly under the explosion) at Hiroshima is estimated to have reached 4.5 to 6.7 tons per square meter, 45-67% of normal atmospheric pressure. Maximum pressure at the Nagasaki hypocenter may have been as high as 10 tons per square meter. The blast wave generated by the explosions moved through the air and across the ground’s surface at approximately the speed of sound until it dissipated.

PIKA!

“Someone shouted, ‘Look, a parachute!’ We looked up and saw something falling slowly… Suddenly, ‘Pika!’ There was a tremendous flash, and everything turned completely dark.”

Taeko Teramae, third-year student, Shintoku Girls’ High School, Hiroshima

Few survivors close to the center of the Hiroshima or Nagasaki explosions would remember hearing the sound of the blast. None of them would ever forget the Pika –the flash of incredibly brilliant light and heat that occurred as a nuclear explosion heated the sky to luminescence. The burst of light was quickly followed by a tremendous air pressure wave that bent steel bridges, toppled buildings, and reduced wooden houses to kindling.

“Then a tremendous flash of light cut across the sky…It seemed like a sheet of sun.”

Rev. Kiyoshi Tainimoto, from “Hiroshima” by John Hersey (1946)

“The moment there was a flash, it felt like thickly mixed paint was thrown at me, and I thought heaven had fallen. I was burned from face to shoulder to navel at that instant.”

Tada Makiko, housewife, Nagasaki

“Suddenly, there was a brilliant flash, like a photographer’s magnesium flash…Then came the blast with a loud bang, and I felt like I had been kicked in the guts…The world was black.”

F.J. Johnston, Australian prisoner-of-war in Nagasaki, 1945

A MOMENT FROZEN IN TIME

The flash of light generated at the moment of detonation cast shadows on walls, steps, buildings, and even stands of bamboo in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The unbelievable heat, which reached 3,000 to 4,000 C (5,400 to 7,200 F) at ground level under the explosions, altered the color of the surrounding material, etching the shadows in place. Human flesh was burned, and near the hypocenters, people were vaporized altogether.

People caught in the open within one kilometer of the blast experienced temperatures so high that the dark, heat-absorbing pattern of their clothing was burned into their flesh.

A MOMENT FROZEN IN TIME

The flash of light generated by the detonation cast shadows on walls, steps, buildings, and even stands of bamboo in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The unbelievable heat, which reached 3,000 to 4,000 C (5,400 to 7,200 F) at ground level under the explosions –roughly the temperature of the surface of the sun –altered the color of the surrounding material, etching the shadows in place.

HIBAKUSHA

Hibakusha (“explosion affected person”) is a term that has been applied to atomic bomb survivors for the past half-century. Some hibakusha still bears the mark of their experience in the form of keloid scars. They have suffered the psychological pain of surviving an incident that took the lives of friends and loved ones. Many have suffered the post-war prejudices of their fellow citizens, who believe survivors were tainted by exposure to radiation. They all know they have a higher-than-average chance of developing leukemia or some other cancer. Only they can tell you what it is like to survive an atomic explosion.

HIBAKUSHA

Hibakusha (“explosion affected person”) is a term that has been applied to atomic bomb survivors for the past half-century. Many have suffered the post-war prejudices of their fellow citizens, who believe survivors were tainted by exposure to radiation.

HIROSHIMA: THE FIRST HALF HOUR

Hiroshima stands on a flat river delta, with few hills to protect sections of the city. Moreover, the bomb was dropped on the city center, an area crowded with wooden residential structures and places of business. Beneath the column of smoke that rose over the city following the explosion, tens of thousands were already dead or dying.

Even before the fires began to race out of control, the physical destruction of buildings and other structures within 2 km (1.2 mi) of the blast was virtually complete. The sheer force of the explosion had shifted the position of a large steel bridge close to the hypocenter, flattened all wooden buildings and steel frame structures, and collapsed the floors and roofs of reinforced concrete buildings designed to withstand earthquakes.

The city’s geography shaped the pattern of destruction in Nagasaki. The bomb was dropped over the Urakami Valley, a residential and industrial area. The center of Nagasaki, the harbor, and the historic district were shielded from the blast by the hills flanking the Urakami River. In the affected area, however, an estimated 12,000 buildings were destroyed by explosions or burned in the fires resulting from the bomb.

As a result of a more powerful bomb and the focusing effect of the surrounding hills, physical destruction in the Urakami Valley was even more significant than in Hiroshima. Virtually nothing was left standing. Worshippers in neighborhood shrines, temples, and the grand Urakami Cathedral died in their prayers. Children were killed in the classrooms, prisoners in their cells, and workers at their machines.

“Houses and trees were leveled as far as the eye could see, and fires were beginning to break out in the ruins. At the side of the road, I saw the corpse of a man guiding a horse cart, still on his feet with his hair standing on end like wire…The river was filled with dead and half-dead; burned children screamed, ‘Mommy! Mommy!; mothers searched for their children, calling out names in faltering voices.”

HIROSHIMA: THE FIRST HALF HOUR

Hiroshima stands on a flat river delta, with few hills to protect sections of the city. The bomb was dropped in the city center, an area crowded with wooden residential structures and places of business. Beneath the column of smoke that rose over the city following the explosion, tens of thousands were already dead or dying.

Even before the fires began to race out of control, the physical destruction of buildings and other structures within 2 kilometers (1.2 miles) of the blast was virtually complete. The sheer force of the explosion had shifted the position of a large steel bridge close to ground zero, flattened all wooden buildings and steel frame structures, and collapsed the floors and roofs of reinforced concrete buildings designed to withstand earthquakes.

The city’s geography shaped the pattern of destruction in Nagasaki. The bomb was dropped over the Urakami Valley, an industrial and residential area. The center of Nagasaki, the harbor, and the historic district were shielded from the blast by the hills flanking the Urakami River. But in the valley, about 12,000 buildings were destroyed by explosions or burned in the ensuing fires.

The more powerful bomb and the focusing effect of the surrounding hills resulted in even greater destruction in the Urakami Valley than in Hiroshima. Virtually nothing was left standing.

FIRESTORMS

In both cities, the intense heat generated by the explosions created fires near the hypocenter. Fed by broken gas and electrical lines, the initial fires spread out of control. Fire stations and equipment had been destroyed, firefighters were dead or injured, and water pipes were ruptured.

High winds created fire storms within one-half hour of the blast. In Hiroshima, where conditions for such a conflagration were perfect, winds within the firestorm reached a maximum velocity of 65 km/h (40 mph) 2-3 hours after the blast. In the center of the firestorm, temperatures reached 1,899 C (3,450 F). Wood and fabric burst into spontaneous flame. The steel structures of bridges and buildings twisted out of shape. Metal, glass, and stone objects were shattered, melted, and fused.

FIRESTORMS

In both cities, the atomic flash ignited fires near ground zero, quickly spreading out of control and merging into a general conflagration. There was little with which to fight it: fire stations and equipment had been destroyed, firefighters killed or injured, and water pipes broke.

In Hiroshima, the rising plume of hot gas from the conflagration generated strong winds blowing toward the center and feeding a firestorm. The winds reached 65 kilometers (40 miles) per hour two to three hours after the blast. In the center of the firestorm, temperatures reached 1,900C (3,450F). Wood and fabric burst into flame; the steel structures of bridges and buildings twisted out of shape; metal, glass, and stone were shattered, melted, and fused.

A SEA OF FLAMES

The gigantic firestorm in Hiroshima ultimately destroyed 13 square kilometers (5 square miles) of the city. Almost 63% of the buildings in Hiroshima were killed, and nearly 92% of the city’s structures had been destroyed or damaged by blast and fire.

Because of Nagasaki’s hilly geography and the hypocenter’s location away from the city center, the conflagration was limited to the Urakami Valley and downtown. It was nonetheless devastating–the flames consumed some 22.7% of Nagasaki’s buildings.

THE FIRST HIROSHIMA MUNICIPAL GIRLS’ HIGH SCHOOL

On the morning of August 6, 1945, 544 first and second-year students and eight teachers of the First Hiroshima Municipal Girls’ High School were clearing rubble to create a fire break near the south side of the Seifukuin Temple in the district of Zaimoku-cho, some 300-500 m (100-1650 ft) from the hypocenter. They took the full force of the blast and heat. Most died instantly. A few survived the initial explosion, only to die in the flames. It is estimated that perhaps 16 of the 544 girls survived.

“… the following morning, I bandaged my head–I too was burned and injured–and went to the work site. Many of the students’…eyeballs had popped out, all the way out. And their mouths were ripped open by the blast, their faces were burned, their hair gone, their clothes were burned off all over their bodies, and the blast blew them helter-skelter… the girl’s school uniforms were burned off completely; they were completely stripped…naked. It was just like, well, a scene from hell.”

Zoroku Miyagawa, Principal, Hiroshima First Girls’ High School, December 3, 1945

SHATTERED LIVES

Many individuals close to ground zero in the two cities were never found. Their bodies were consumed by the heat and blast of the explosion or burned beyond recognition in the firestorms that followed. Scattered here and there among the ashes, a handful of objects survived to remind family members of cherished loved ones who had vanished.

SCENES OF DESTRUCTION: HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI, AUGUST 7-10, 1945

“They all had skin blackened by burns… They had no hair because their hair was burned, and…you could not tell whether you were looking at them in front or in back… They held their arms bent [forward]…and their skin–not only on their hands but also on their faces and bodies hung down… I can picture them in my mind, like walking ghosts…”

A grocer in Hiroshima

“And one thing that has never disappeared from my mind was…a girl in the rain of about eighteen or nineteen years old, and she had no clothing on her body but half of her panties, which did not cover her. She took a few steps toward me, but, as she was ashamed of her situation, she…crouched on the ground…and asked me for help…and when I looked at her hands, I saw the skin was burned off as if she were wearing gloves. Her hair was messy, and her breast was red from burns…I was at a loss.”

A Hiroshima factory worker

“Many corpses were found where there was water–rivers, old wells, cisterns, ponds, and the like. It appears that people who did not die instantly had exerted themselves to the limit in their search for water.”

A member of the Marine Transport Rescue Team, Hiroshima, 1945

“At the side of the road, I noticed a young boy standing beside a…pine tree, and the vision made me stop in my tracks. His legs were spread open in a running posture, and his hands were thrust forward as though he were about to grasp something. It was the corpse of the boy, frozen like a statue…I noticed a dead kitten clamped to the…pine tree in front of the boy… having jumped onto the tree to avoid his grasp, and its body was covered in the scorched and frizzled fur remains. Without disintegrating or falling from the tree, it glared with eternally locked eyes toward the boy.”

Ms. Chise Setuguchi, Nagasaki

SCENES OF DESTRUCTION: HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI, AUGUST 7-10, 1945

“Many corpses were found where there was water–rivers, old wells, cisterns, ponds, and the like. It appears that people who did not die instantly had exerted themselves to the limit in their search for water.”

A member of the Water Transport Rescue Team, Hiroshima, 1945

COPING WITH CHAOS

In Hiroshima and the Urakami section of Nagasaki, the devastation was staggering. Hiroshima had lost city and prefectural officials, military leaders, hospitals, and medical professionals who might have organized the relief effort. A steady stream of half-naked, bleeding, and burned survivors staggered away from the center of destruction. Surviving doctors and nurses established makeshift relief stations, but beds, essential medical supplies, and trained personnel were desperately scarce.

Relief parties moving into the devastated areas discovered that few people were left to rescue. Their most significant task was recovering and disposing of thousands of corpses. Those who had died immediately were buried beneath the rubble of the city. Those who had lived for a few minutes or hours loner were piled deep on bridges and along river banks or floating in the rivers, where they had sought to escape the firestorm.

“Sometime after dark, a whistle and a horn blew; the Relief Train and an Army truck had arrived. The train was packed…But the truck was even worse; bodies were piled so high [that] surely another could not have been added. Neither dead nor living nor male and female could be distinguished among the overlapping bodies…their hair was burned crisp and wrinkled; their clothes were in tatters; exposed skin was badly burned and blood-soaked…their faces, backs, arms and legs and been pierced by countless glass, wood, and metal splinters…and some king of pitch-black substance, like coal tar, stuck to their heads and bodies.”

An intern on duty at the Omura Naval Hospital, Nagasaki, August 9, 1945

“I threw myself into the search for my family and cast about the still-hot rubble. Before long, the tips of my shoes burned, my toes stuck out, and my hands became swollen with blisters…looking on the road, I found a charred corpse that seemed to be my wife in front of our neighbor Mr. Baba’s house. I intuited that the dead baby on her back was our one-year-old daughter Takako. However, I could never find our eight-year-old son Tateki and our eldest daughter Mariko.”

Tsuneo Tomimatsu, Nagasaki

“On the fifth day of duty, we were assigned to dispose of the countless corpses floating in the rivers, bobbing up and down with the waves caused by the ebb and flow of the tide. The corpses were retrieved by boat and transported to shore. Several dozen bloated, naked bodies were too gruesome to look upon. When we reached out and grabbed the hand of a decayed corpse, the skin just slipped off; it was tough to haul them into the boat.”

A member of the Marine Transport Rescue Team, Hiroshima, 1945

COPING WITH CHAOS

The loss of city and prefectural officials, military leaders, hospitals, and medical professionals hampered the organization of relief efforts. Surviving doctors and nurses established makeshift relief stations, but beds, essential medical supplies, and trained personnel were desperately scarce.

Relief parties moving into the devastated areas discovered that few people were left to rescue. Their most significant task was the recovery and disposal of tens of thousands of corpses, many of which were buried beneath the city’s rubble.

 A STORY OF SURVIVAL

“I thought she was dead, but I finally found her alive. I hoped she could at least die at home, so I borrowed a cart from a neighbor and went to Kuba to take her home. I had brought her up since she was two years old after her father died…I took her to the Red Cross Hospital every day. I remember someone taking our picture on the way back from the hospital… She was so pitiful, burned on the left side of her body, face, and arm. I still cry when I think of it.”

Mrs. Kohide Matsuda, 1973

“We gathered scraps of lumber and made a neat pile… We carried the children’s bodies over and placed them on the pile with Umito in the middle. I dressed Umito in a nightshirt of Michiko’s I found in the ruins of our house and put his uniform trousers with a tag saying ‘Matsuo 1-6’ sewn on the lining. I covered little Hiroto and Yukiko with blankets–the last gesture of love I could make for my children. We stacked another heap of wood over their bodies. I said a small prayer, lit the fire below their heads, and then passed the match to the four corners of the pile.”

Atsyuki Matsuo, Nagasaki

A STORY OF SURVIVAL

“I thought she was dead, but I finally found her alive. I hoped she could at least die at home, so I borrowed a cart from a neighbor and went to Kuba to take her home. I had brought her up since she was two years old after her father died…I took her to the Red Cross Hospital every day. I remember someone taking our picture on the way back from the hospital… She was so pitiful, burned on the left side of her body, face, and arm. I still cry when I think of it.”

Mrs. Kohide Matsuda, 1973

COUNTING THE DEAD

The chaotic conditions in both cities following the disaster made it difficult to prepare an accurate account of the human dimension of the tragedy. This was complicated because death from radiation poisoning at the time of the bombing might not claim its victim for days, weeks, months, or years after the event.

Several studies based solely on the disposal of bodies set the initial toll for Hiroshima between 42,000 and 93,000 individuals. Those counts are, however, undoubtedly low and incomplete. A more accurate survey combining body counts, unresolved missing person reports, and interviews conducted by neighborhood associations during the year following the bombing suggests that as many as 130,000 individuals died as a direct result of the bomb up to the beginning of November 1945.

A similar survey by the Nagasaki officials set the final death toll for that city at 60,000 to 70,000.

COUNTING THE DEAD

The chaotic conditions in both cities following the bombing made it challenging to assess the human dimension of the destruction. The radiation affects detailed casualty estimates because they continue to cause deaths and injuries weeks, months, or years afterward.

Several studies based solely on the disposal of bodies set the initial toll for Hiroshima between 42,000 and 93,000. A more detailed survey, combining body counts, unresolved missing person reports, and interviews, was conducted by neighborhood associations during the year following the bombing. It suggests that as many as 130,000 died as a direct result of the bomb up to the beginning of November 1945. A similar survey set the final death toll for Nagasaki at about 74,000. The exact numbers will never be known.

Mortality at Hiroshima

This graph shows the percentage of killed individuals plotted against distance from ground zero. Over 90 percent of those within 500 meters (1,600 feet) died within one day.

RADIOACTIVE FALLOUT: THE “BLACK RAIN”

Following the atomic explosions, nuclear fission products of uranium and plutonium, radioactive isotopes that had escaped fission, and other material irradiated by neutrons from the bombs were carried high into the atmosphere. The enormous amount of material thrown into the air, combined with the heat and thermal currents generated by the growing firestorms, led to rain in both cities within 30-40 minutes of the bombing.

The “black rain,” as it came to be known, carried the radioactive materials back to Earth as fallout—the sticky, dark, dangerously radioactive water-stained skin, clothing, and buildings. Contact with the skin, ingestion through breathing, or consuming contaminated food or water resulted in radiation poisoning.

“I went to report to the college dean that the patients had been evacuated, but I found him covered by a raincoat and lying asleep on a hillside vegetable patch with terrible wounds all over his body. Large drops of black-colored rain were falling and spattering on the raincoat. I thought for the first time that Japan had lost the war.”

Dr. Takashi Nagai, Nagasaki

A DEADLY NEW THREAT: RADIOACTIVITY

The scientists who designed the atomic bombs knew of these weapons’ potential heat and blast effects but were only partly aware of the long-term dangers of radioactivity. They nonetheless expressed concern over the possibility of radioactive fallout from the “Trinity” test in New Mexico, which was conducted near ground level. But even the leaders of the Manhattan Project were surprised by the contamination produced by this explosion. As a result, they decided that the weapons dropped on Japan should be detonated at a higher altitude to minimize fallout and maximize the blast wave.

Most scientists continued to believe that radiation would not claim many victims when the bombs were dropped. Japanese buildings were so poorly constructed, they reasoned, that those most in danger from radiation would already have been killed due to the blast and heat. To their surprise, many cases of radiation sickness appeared soon after the bombings.

THE INITIAL RADIATION FROM THE BOMB

The nuclear weapons dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki expended about 3% of their total energy in generating ionizing radiation –high-energy particles and rays with sufficient power to “ionize” neutral atoms, that is, to strip electrons away from them. While the air absorbs some of this ionizing radiation, neutrons (electrically neutral sub-atomic particles) and gamma and X-rays (extremely high energy forms of light) did reach the ground and damage living tissues exposed to them. Close to the hypocenters of the explosion, dosages were high enough to be immediately lethal, provided the flash, blast, or fire did not already kill the exposed person.

INITIAL RADIATION EFFECTS

A nuclear bomb emits a concentrated burst of high-energy radiation -chiefly gamma rays and neutrons– at the instant of the explosion. At Hiroshima and Nagasaki, this initial radiation caused damage to the tissues of people and animals located within about 2,000 meters (1.2 miles) of ground zero. People exposed to high radiation dosages close to ground zero often died within hours or days, even if they had been shielded from the other effects of the bombs.

The initial burst of radiation also induced radioactivity in buildings, soil, and other materials located near the centers of the explosions. This contamination caused radiation sickness, too, but to a lesser degree than the initial radiation.

INDUCED RADIOACTIVITY

The Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs also created induced or residual radioactivity. The initial burst of radiation from the bombs irradiated the soil and all other materials in the area of the blasts. The absorption by all kinds of substances of slow neutrons from the explosions was significant. New forms (isotopes) of chemical elements were created that themselves emitted ionizing radiation.

On August 13-14, 1945, Japanese physicists investigating the area near the hypocenter at Hiroshima found unusual levels of radioactivity in the soil, in the bones of a horse, and the sulfur of electrical insulators on utility poles. Ultimately, scientists would identify various unusual radioactive elements in the soil, roofing tiles, asphalt, and concrete near ground zero in the two cities.

RADIOACTIVE FALLOUT: THE “BLACK RAIN”

The mushroom clouds carried the radioactive material created by the atomic explosions into the atmosphere. When combined with this material, soot held aloft on thermal currents generated by the fires led to radioactive rain in or near the two cities 20 to 40 minutes after the bombings.

The “black rain,” as it came to be known, carried the radioactive materials back to Earth as fallout. The sticky, dark water stained skin, clothing, and buildings. Contact with the skin, ingestion through breathing, or consuming contaminated food or water often resulted in radiation sickness.

The dark streaks on this woman’s slip were made by black rain that fell northwest of Hiroshima for several hours after the bombing.

Loaned by the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum

“The black rain began to fall, and I wondered what it was… It gave me a horrible feeling… Later, people said it might be oil rain… We wondered if it was oil to make fire or to harm people…whether they might be planning to kill all the people by burning them…or whether this oil would stick to the skin of all the people, making everyone die one after the other….”

Yoko Ota, Hiroshima

MANHATTAN PROJECT SCIENTISTS AND THE RADIATION EFFECTS OF THE BOMB

The American, British, and refugee scientists who designed the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs were aware of the dangers of radioactivity. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, experimenters with radioactive materials have suffered ill effects, as had workers who had painted radium watch dials and instruments.

At the time of the first atomic bomb test in New Mexico in July 1945, Manhattan Project scientists had expressed concern over the possibility of radioactive fallout on people downwind of the test site. The very high level of radioactivity produced by the “Trinity” test explosion nonetheless came as a surprise. Most scientists, however, continued to believe that radiation poisoning would not claim many victims when the atomic bomb was dropped on Japanese cities. Those individuals most in danger of such poisoning, they reasoned, would already have died as a result of the blast and heat.

At first, the medical professionals who treated bomb victims in Hiroshima and Nagasaki were overwhelmed by the traumatic effects of the bombs. Individuals had been crushed, struck by flying objects, and burned. The severe nature of the burns suffered by survivors exposed to the initial flash was [sic] shocking. In some cases, the fabric pattern of clothing had been burned into the skin.

The real puzzle, however, came from individuals who suffered from unexplained loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting, abnormal thirst, diarrhea, and general malaise. In up to 30% of the survivors, the symptoms occurred alone or in combination within a half-hour to three hours after the explosion. By August 17 in Hiroshima(?), 181 unexplained fatalities had resulted from these symptoms.

“The bodies of the dead students from the school where I taught had been collected mostly, but now an increasing number of students with no visible injuries were dying. They developed a fever several days after the explosion; their hair fell out completely, and thick blackish-red blood began to flow from their gums. Finally, they sputtered hysterically in the throes of fever and then died one after another. Others went insane and, seized by some unknown fear, refused to come out of the toilets and closets. The school dormitory had to be closed temporarily, and I began to receive word that many of the young girls who had gone home to recuperate were also becoming sick and showing the above symptoms.”

Ms. Chic Setoguchi, Nagasaki

“My sister soon developed diarrhea, and unsightly purple blotches appeared on her skin. This was the final signpost. She began to mumble deliriously. I had heard that water was bad for an injured person, but I gave her as much as she wanted because I knew the end was near.”

Ms. Hisai Aoki, Nagasaki

THE MYSTERIOUS “A-BOMB DISEASE”

Physicians treating bomb victims in Hiroshima and Nagasaki were puzzled by the number of people suffering from unexplained loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting, abnormal thirst, diarrhea, and general malaise. The symptoms occurred alone or in combination within three hours after the explosion in up to 30 percent of the survivors.

Other symptoms also occurred within days and weeks after the bombings. People suffered widespread hair loss, internal hemorrhaging, reddening, and pain in the larynx, gums, and palate. Skin hemorrhages and lesions appeared on the face, chest, neck, and upper arms. The symptoms appeared in over 60 percent of all Hiroshima survivors within 1 kilometer (0.6 miles) of ground zero but in only 7 percent of those over 5 kilometers (3 miles) of ground zero.

By early September 1945, Japanese physicians and American authorities began to realize that many bomb survivors were suffering and dying from radiation sickness.

Exposed 1,000 meters (0.6 miles) from ground zero in Hiroshima, this soldier began losing his hair on August 18. He was hospitalized on August 30, when the first signs of hemorrhaging were observed. He lost consciousness on September 2 and died the next day, two hours after this photo was taken.

Photograph by Kenichi Kimura, courtesy of the National Museum of Health and Medicine, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology

“An old woman…died within a few days of the bomb, showing many spots on her body… It is terrible to say this, but those spots were beautiful. They were like stars –red, green-yellow, and black– all over her body, and I was fascinated by them.”

Physician, Hiroshima

“We heard the new phrase, ‘A-bomb disease.’ The fear in us became strong, especially when we could see certain things with our eyes: a man looked perfectly well when he rode by on a bicycle one morning, suddenly vomiting blood and then dying… Soon we were all worried about our health, our bodies– whether we would live or die. And we heard that if someone did get sick, no treatment could help. We had nothing to rely on, nothing to hold us up.”

A Buddhist priest in Hiroshima

THE MYSTERY IS SOLVED

New symptoms appeared during the days and weeks following the bombing. Skin hemorrhages and lesions appeared on the face, chest, neck, and upper arms, often complicated by infections. There was widespread hair loss, internal hemorrhaging, reddening, and pain in the larynx, gums, and palate. The symptoms appeared in 61% of all Hiroshima survivors within one kilometer of the hypocenter and only 7% of those exposed over five kilometers from ground zero.

By the end of the first week of September 1945, it was becoming clear to physicians in the two cities and American authorities that the A-bomb survivors were suffering from radiation poisoning. Analyses of blood and bone marrow samples from victims confirmed this. It had also become apparent that individuals exposed to fallout and those exposed to induced radiation during the hours and days following the explosion had also contracted radiation poisoning.

“An old woman…died within a few days of the bomb, showing many spots on her body…It is terrible to say this, but those spots were beautiful. They were like stars –red, green-yellow, and black– all over her body, and I was fascinated by them.”

Physician, Hiroshima

“We heard the new phrase, ‘A-bomb disease.’ The fear in us became strong, especially when we could see certain things with our eyes: a man looked perfectly well when he rode by on a bicycle one morning, suddenly vomiting blood and then dying… Soon we were all worried about our health, our bodies– whether we would live or die. And we heard that if someone did get sick, no treatment could help. We had nothing to rely on, nothing to hold us up.”

A Buddhist priest in Hiroshima

SHORT-TERM MORTALITY AT HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI

Over 90% of individuals within 500 m (1600 ft) of the hypocenters at Hiroshima and Nagasaki died. At a distance of 1.5 kilometers (roughly one mile), over 2/3 of all people were casualties, and 1/3 died. Half of the individuals exposed at a distance of 2 km (1.2 mi) were casualties, 10% of whom died. Losses dropped to 10% at distances over 4km (2.4 mi). Most of those who received high radiation dosages close to the hypocenter died immediately or on the first day. One-third of the fatalities had occurred by the fourth day, 2/3 by day 10, and 90% by the end of three weeks.

LONG-TERM RADIATION EFFECTS IN HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI

The immediate crisis in Hiroshima and Nagasaki had passed by the end of December 1945. Individuals who had suffered from radiation poisoning had either died or recovered. It soon became apparent, however, that exposure to radiation created long-term health problems.

Thermal burns were covered with disfiguring scars known as keloids. Severe anemia and other blood disorders, cataracts, sterility in both sexes and menstrual irregularities appeared. Children exposed to radiation while in the womb faced a 20% risk of being mentally retarded. Some exposed children were born with tiny heads or other deformities.

“In April 1952, Yoshimasa entered T. Elementary School. When the name Yoshimasa Yoshida was called, he responded, but, unable to understand the teacher’s order to rise, he remained seated blankly… The result of the [intelligence] test we requested was, after all, really quite low… We left the school gate just when the cherry blossoms were in full bloom. Hearing the healthy children’s voices singing behind us, I burst into tears. Yoshimasa, skipping ahead of me, looked back and smiled…”

Mrs. Jirokichi Yoshida, mother of a mentally disabled child exposed to radiation in utero.

LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF THE BOMBS

The immediate crisis in Hiroshima and Nagasaki had passed by the end of December 1945. People who had suffered from radiation poisoning had either died or recovered. However, t soon became apparent that exposure to radiation created long-term health problems.

Thermal burns became covered with disfiguring scars known as keloids. Severe anemia and other blood disorders, cataracts, sterility in both sexes and menstrual irregularities appeared. Children exposed to high doses of radiation while in the womb faced a 20 percent risk of being mentally retarded. Some exposed children were born with tiny heads or other deformities.

The keloid scars resulting from initial burns cannot be surgically removed. Keloids permanently disfigured faces and twisted the muscles of arms, hands, and legs.

Courtesy of the National Museum of Health and Medicine, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology

“How would people look at me? The more I thought about it, the more apprehensive I became… The burns on my back did not heal for fifteen years, and I had to receive treatment for them continuously. The wounds were finally covered after a skin transplant operation in 1960, but ulcers soon formed in the [keloid] scars. The ulcers got worse, and five years ago, I entered another hospital and received another operation to remove them. Subsequently, I have been in and out of the hospital repeatedly… According to my doctor, modern medical science still has no efficient method to treat these lesions.”

Sumiteru Taniguchi, Nagasaki

CANCER AMONG SURVIVORS

Fifty years after the atomic bombing of Japan, it is apparent that the incidence of some cancers is significantly higher among bomb survivors than in the average population. The first cases of leukemia (a cancer of the blood) appeared in Nagasaki in 1945 and in Hiroshima a year later. The disease climbed to a peak among survivors during the years 1950-1953. A survivor who received 1 gray (100 rads of ionizing energy absorbed per kilogram of body tissue) in August 1945 is almost five times more likely to contract leukemia than an average individual.

The incidence of eye cataracts and cancers of the urinary tract, breast, lungs, colon, esophagus, and stomach are also higher among atomic bomb survivors. Genetic damage is apparent in the nonreproductive cells of nuclear bomb survivors. The impact of this damage on the offspring and descendants of survivors has been studied carefully. Still, no significant evidence exists that genetic problems have been passed on to future generations.

“How would people look at me? The more I thought about it, the more apprehensive I became… The burns on my back did not heal for fifteen years, and I had to receive treatment for them continuously. The wounds were finally covered after a skin transplant operation in 1960, but ulcers soon formed in the [keloid] scars. The ulcers got worse, and five years ago, I entered another hospital and received another operation to remove them. Subsequently, I have been in and out of the hospital repeatedly… According to my doctor, modern medical science still has no efficient method to treat these lesions.”

Sumiteru Taniguchi, Nagasaki

CANCER AMONG SURVIVORS

The incidence of some cancers is higher than average among bomb survivors. A noticeable increase in leukemia cases (a blood cancer) appeared in Hiroshima and Nagasaki about two years after the bombings. The disease climbed to a peak among survivors between 1950 to 1953.

The incidence of cataracts of the eye and cancers of the urinary tract, breast, lungs, colon, esophagus, and stomach were also higher among atomic bomb survivors. Genetic damage was apparent in the nonreproductive cells of nuclear bomb survivors, but there is no evidence that genetic problems have been passed to future generations.

We estimated the relative risks of cancers for individuals exposed to radiation at 1 to 1.5 kilometers (0.6 to 0.9 miles) from ground zero at Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Courtesy of the Radiation Effects Research Foundation

THE ATOMIC BOMB CASUALTY COMMISSION

Anxious to better understand radiation’s effects on large populations, the U.S. government established an Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC) under the auspices of the National Academy of Sciences in 1947. The ABCC would eventually identify 120,000 bomb survivors, establish their precise location and radiation dosage, and monitor their health over an extended period.

The ABCC was bitterly criticized in Japan for refusing to provide victims with health services. The decision was based on a reluctance to draw patients away from Japanese physicians and on the American perception that treating the survivors would amount to an admission of guilt for the bombing. From the Japanese perspective, it simply appeared that the U.S. government, through the ABCC, regarded the atomic bombing of Japan as an experiment and the survivors as guinea pigs.

The ABCC was reorganized in (yr.?) as the Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF), with joint Japanese-American participation to ease the situation.

The Radiation Effects Research Foundation, still active today, has proven invaluable in advising on treating victims of subsequent nuclear disasters, including the 1986 explosion of the Soviet reactor at Chornobyl.

THE ATOMIC BOMB CASUALTY COMMISSION

To better understand the effects of radiation on large populations, the U.S. government established the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC) in 1947. The commission would eventually identify 120,000 bomb survivors, select their location at the bombings and their radiation dosage, and monitor their health over an extended period.

The commission was criticized in Japan for refusing to provide victims with health services. That decision was based on a reluctance to draw patients away from Japanese physicians and the American perception that treating the survivors would be an apology for the bombings. Some Japanese claimed that the U.S. government regarded the atomic bombings as an experiment and the survivors as guinea pigs. In 1975 the ABCC was reorganized as the Radiation Effects Research Foundation with joint Japanese-American participation.

SADAKO AND THE THOUSAND PAPER CRANES

Sadako Sasaki was two years old when she was exposed to radiation 1600 m (1 mi) from the hypocenter in Hiroshima. In 1955, the healthy twelve-year-old girl, the fastest runner at the Noborimachi Primary School, was diagnosed with acute leukemia. According to Japanese folk belief, cranes live a thousand years and symbolize good health. Sadako spent the last months attempting to fold one thousand paper cranes. When she died in October 1955, she had completed only 964. Her classmates finished the rest.

Determined to raise funds for a monument to Sadako and the other child victims of the atomic bomb, the young people of Hiroshima began a letter-writing campaign for schools across Japan. The effort captured the public imagination, raised seven million yen ($20,000), and established Sadako as a symbol of the cost of war in the nuclear age. Today her statue stands in the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park, adorned with thousands of paper cranes that arrive each year from schoolchildren worldwide.

SADAKO AND THE THOUSAND PAPER CRANES

Sadako Sasaki was two years old when she was exposed to radiation 1,600 meters (1 mile) from ground zero in Hiroshima. In 1955 the healthy 12-year-old girl, the fastest runner at the Noborimachi Primary School, was diagnosed with acute leukemia. According to Japanese folk belief, cranes live a thousand years and symbolize good health. Sadako spent the last months attempting to fold a thousand paper cranes. When she died in October 1955, she had completed only 964. Her classmates finished the rest.

Determined to raise funds for a monument to Sadako and the other children who may have died due to the bomb, the young people of Hiroshima began a letter-writing campaign to schools across Japan. The effort captured the public imagination and established Sadako as a symbol of the cost of war in the nuclear age. Today her statue stands in the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park, adorned with thousands of paper cranes that arrive each year from schoolchildren worldwide.